INTRODUCTION

Egypt's agricultural sector is unique in that over 95% of its agricultural production is derived from irrigated land and its irrigation waters originate outside of its borders.

On the macro level, the last two centuries of modern Egypt have witnessed considerable development starting by the construction of the Delta Barrage (1898) to assure summer cotton irrigation in the Nile Delta, and the establishment of an intensive canal networks for irrigation, and ending by the construction of the Aswan High Dam in the sixties of the nineteenth century.

The High Aswan Dam was constructed to assure the long term availability of water for both Egypt and Sudan. However, the average annual flow during the last decade has been slightly decreased than the long term average.

The concentration on the macro level was on the hardware part of the system, while the present and the future will concentrate on the software of the system. Such activities include improvements in operation and maintenance, demand management, re-cycling, capacity building, and users participation.

Present agricultural water use accounts for about 84% of the total water use while industrial, municipal and navigational use accounts for 8%, 5%, 3% respectively. Percentages of water use by agriculture and municipal sectors are expected to remain by the year 2000 almost similar to the above mentioned values while for industry it is expected to increase by about 50% and navigational use will decline very substantially.

1. WATER SUPPLY AND DEMANDS

1.1 Water Supply

Surface water resources are limited to Egypt's share of the flow of the River Nile. In accordance with terms of 1959 Nile water agreement between Egypt and Sudan, Egypt's present annual share downstream Aswan Dam is 55.5 billion m3. The High Aswan Dam, commissioned in 1968, provides over-year storage to guarantee regulated water supplies. This Nile Water discharge constitutes more than 95 % of Egyptian total water supplies.

Egypt has no effective rainfall except in a narrow bond along the northern coastal area where the average rainfall is 200 mm. The groundwater aquifer underlying the Nile Valley and the Delta is entirely recharged and is dependent on deep percolation of irrigation water and seepage for the irrigation system. Some limited renewable and non-renewable groundwater within the Western Desert and Sinai are currently used and the potential for the future depends on economical feasibilities.

The Nile system below Aswan can be considered a closed system with a single input from the High Aswan Dam and five outlets, which are: Evapotranspiration, non-recoverable municipal and industrial consumptions, evaporation, agricultural drainage water to the sea, and non recoverable inland navigation water released to the sea. Using this concept, the valley and Delta groundwater extractions and drainage re-use would be considered as internal mechanisms to increase the system overall efficiency and not as added resources.

The exact nature and details of these inter-relations are not clear yet. A new factor that adds to the complexity of the issue is the water quality changes. These are subject to research studies now conducted by the National Water Research Center (NWRC) in Egypt.

1.2 Water Demands

Agriculture is the largest water user in Egypt. It is essentially dependent upon irrigation, and consumes the bulk of the available water (about 84%). The total irrigated area now amounts to 7.4 million acres. The future expansion programs depends very much on the availability of additional water resources.

Surface irrigation systems are used in most old agricultural lands of Egypt, with an application efficiency which is still considered low. Excess irrigation water applications contribute to the groundwater shallow aquifers and to water logging problems. Water pumped from such aquifers or re-used through re-cycling of agricultural drainage water brings up the overall water use efficiency to a reasonable value (7580%).

The Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources (MPWWR) does not give any irrigation permits for new lands, within the program of land reclamation, unless evidence is given that modern irrigation systems will be used.

Present annual municipal, industrial and navigational water demands amounts to 3.1, 4.6, and 1.8 million m3 respectively. In the year 1995-1996 the MPWWR has succeeded to bring navigational water use to 0.3 billion m3 following the construction of New Esna Barrages and through changing the operating rules of winter closure period. Future requirements in such demands depend very much on population growth. The population of Egypt now is about 58 million and is expected to increase to 70 and 90 million by the years 2000, and 2025 respectively.

This paper is not addressing the projections of demands and supplies for the future. Reference is made to work carried out by the planning sector of the MPWWR.

Preparation of Water Policies for Egypt dates back to 1933 when a policy was set up to make use of additional capacity due to the second heightening of the old Aswan Dam. The most recent update for the year 2000 that took place was in June 1994.

The Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources is currently reviewing its water policy considering these new factors, Meanwhile the year 2000 is becoming too close for planning purposes and the year 2027 is the new target for planning.

2. PRESENT AND FUTURE PROGRAMS FOR MANAGING DEMANDS FOR AGRICULTURAL USERS

The National Water Research Center (NWRC) has carried out a detailed study (1977-1984) to identify the major constraints that hinder the efficient use of water for irrigation, and to propose a water management strategy for Egypt. The principal constraints were found as follows:

- Fragmentation of land into small and separate holdings have limited the establishment of efficient irrigation methods.

- Misuse of canal banks, degradation and sedimentation have contributed to changes in water levels and canal discharges.

- The use of the rotation system has its limitation for better water control and use of modern irrigation systems.

- The lack of an efficient water extension service.

- Excessive losses from the irrigation system between main points of distribution and farm outlets.

- Diversity of crops within are as served by one canal.

- Abundance of night irrigation

- Poor land leveling

- Lack of adequate funds for maintenance and the absence of a charging or cost recovery system which would provide funds for that purpose.

With limited renewable fresh water resources and a continuous increase in water demands for agriculture, the issue of satisfying such demands becomes very serious. The per capita water share of fresh water resources is expected to drop from a current value of about 930 m3/year to about 350 m3 by the year 2025. Based on present lessons and constraints, the country has to implement rigorously several management programs. The realization of these programs will require considerable commitment from policy makers, technicians and water users.

The existing demand management programs have two dimensions. the first deals with the hardware of the system and the second with the software part. Each is implemented on the different levels of the system: macro, meso and micro, mostly in areas related to policy, management, planning, design control, operation maintenance and institutional issues.

The identified constraints of the demand management as well as improvement in the performance of the Nile system have been tackled through one of the intensive Irrigation Management System (IMS) programs which has 10 project components:

1. Regional Irrigation Improvement Project (RIIP)

2. Structural Replacement

3. Preventive Maintenance

4. Main System Management (Telemetry)

5. Planning Studies and Models.

6. Professional Development

7. Research and Development (National Water Research Center)

8. Project Preparation

9. Survey and Mapping

10. Miscellaneous TA and Commodity Procurement.

These 10 components involve a large number of participating departments, agencies, and farmers.

In the following, the main features of some of the important components are presented.

The Regional Irrigation Improvement Project (RIIP)

The RIIP is to establish and field test an organizational structure within MPWWR capable of providing technical assistance, construction assistance, economic analysis, on-farm development assistance, and user involvement to remodel selected irrigation canal commands. The objective is to make the system more responsive to the needs of farmers and to assure that water is available in the quantities required at the time it is needed to support increased agricultural output.

In 1984 a National Program for irrigation improvement had been approved. The program started in an area of 40,000 acres forming the first phase of the RIIP. The plan of 1992/97 covers an additional area of 350,000 acres with an estimated cost of 120 million $. Establishment of farmers organizations and irrigation advisory services were found necessary for the success of the program and for the future operation and maintenance of the farm irrigation systems.

The Project is forming water users association (WUA) and implementing an irrigation advisory service (IAS). Both of these concepts have been identified and successfully tested under the Egypt Water Use and Management Project 1977-1984 (EWUP) on a pilot basis. They are now being implemented on a large scale.

The improvement and modernization works vary from realignment of water courses and distributor canals with reconstruction of their section to lining and use of elevated precast water courses or use of buried pipeline systems. The present average cost/acre is around 500 $ which will bring up the total cost to cover the presently cultivated old land of about 6 million acres to 3 billion $.

The expected saving of water is between 1015% with an average increase in agricultural productivity of 30%.

Because of the time and high investment requirements a crash program that deals with some control structures was initiated (SR).

Structural Replacement (SR)

The SR component is aimed at the smaller structures in the irrigation system-intake regulators, head regulators, weirs, tail escapes, spillways, bridges and crossing structures. It is also aimed at improving the quality of structures and assuring that they are built up to MPWWR specifications.

This program was completed by the end of 1994 covering about twenty thousand structures

Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is being carried out in some selected irrigation directorates and is to install the procedures to plan for, manage, and control higher levels of maintenance.

The end result of this program is a preventive maintenance program, tested, accepted, functional, and fully staffed in at least six directorates.

Main System Management (Telemetry)

Management decisions to increase or diminish water flows at key points throughout the irrigation delivery system is improved by a telemetry data collection system. This system is now providing real time data to the managers of the system resulting in improved management and reduction of waste and irrigation shortages.

The telemetry system is to provide detailed data (water level, flow rates, water quality) and communications in some specific points in the irrigation system. Data are assembled utilizing meteor burst transmission of collected data to computerized stations at both Cairo and Aswan. This appropriate technology was selected because of its low cost, and its relatively simple operation and maintenance requirements.

Planning Studies and Models

The MPWWR through its water planning group (WPG), has developed a number of computer models that are designed to increase the operating efficiency of the whole system. These models fall into two groups; one group concerns inflow simulation to predict flows into lake Nasser from the area above the lake, i.e. the basic source of water supply. This group also concerns the operating rules of the High Aswan Dam (HAD), i.e. how stored water supply is to be released in accordance with power, navigation, irrigation and other needs.

The other group of models is concerned with the service area between the HAD and the Mediterranean Sea. They are used to analyze the impact of the water delivery system on agricultural policy programs, and vice-versa; plan the distribution of water through the system; and provide detailed operating parameters, such as gate movement schedules for operating the system within a specified set of system operating constraints.

Professional Development

This component institutionalizes a multi-disciplinary training program to serve the total manpower training development requirements of the MPWWR. The National Irrigation Training Institute (NITI) concept was found to be the best cost alternative to meet the MPWWR training needs. The Institute is completed now and is ready to serve Egypt and the Region.

The National Water Research Center (Research & Development)

The scope and complexity of the MPWWR responsibilities for the irrigation system involves a wide range of scientific disciplines and widely varying subject matter areas. The main objective of the NWRC is to carry basic research and to be the reservoir of knowledge on all aspects of the irrigation system. To serve this purpose, eleven research institutes are fully operational. The NNWRC and its institutes are to support all the sec tors and the authorities of the MPWWR in many areas starting from decision making, technology transfer planning, modernization,...etc., and ending at helping in solving day to day operational problems of the system.

Fresh Water Saving Program

The second feasible water management program is through the minimizing of fresh water spilling to the sea mainly during the closure period. Through the construction of the new Nag-Hammadi navigation lock, the construction of New Esna barrage, and the improvement of the river navigable channel, the spilling of fresh water to the sea is restricted to 70 million m3/day during the closure period of about 3 weeks every year. This minimum discharge is necessary to provide intake levels for municipal water supply pumps along the river course and to satisfy municipal and industrial water requirements. An annual amount of 1.5 x 109 m3 from the total spilling estimated at 1.8 x 109 m3 annually is proposed to be utilized through supplementary irrigation within the northern western coastal zone, and partial storage in the northern lakes.

Water Quality Issues

While a reasonably clear picture exists in terms of salinity of water, availability of usable information on other water quality parameters is very limited. There is an essential need for a rational water data collection and management program. Large volumes of domestic and untreated industrial effluent are still discharged into the river and water channels. In addition, significant proportions of fertilizers and pesticides used is leached into the water system. Potential groundwater contamination from fertilizers could be a concern. Applications of nitrogen, phosphate and potassium fertilizers in the Egyptian agriculture increased nearly 4-fold during the 19601988 period.

Use of pesticides has increased as well, but not at the same rate of fertilizers. In early 1991, use of herbicides to control aquatic weeds in Egypt was stopped.

Increasing water pollution from industrial and domestic sources, if allowed to grow unchecked, is likely to reduce the amount of water available for various uses in the future.

Legal basis of controlling water pollution already exists through law 48 of 1982 on the Protection of the River Nile and Water Ways from Pollution". The law established stringent effluent standards for various organic and inorganic pollutants. Lack of proper funds for treatment of industrial wastes and for providing adequate municipal wastewater treatment plants, has hindered, so far, the full enforcement of the law.

Salinity and waterlogging from irrigation practices has been a problem. However, Egypt has embarked on the construction of an extensive drainage system, a significant part of which is already operational (3.9 x 10 ⁶ acres). For the long term sustainability of agriculture, drainage should continue to receive priority.

3. STRATEGIC RESEARCH

Egypt now faces challenges to satisfy future water demands that could coop with development requirements and environmental issues. Such challenges would require not only long term planning, but also the consideration of the interlinkages between technical, economical, social and environmental issue. A new Startegic Research Unit within the NWRC was established and a Strategic Research Program was proposed.

The activities of such program, which is composed of four components, are listed as follows:

Component 1: Increasing the Global Efficiency of the Nile Irrigation System

Component 2: Reclamation and Reuse of Brackish and Polluted Waters

Component 3: Augmentation by Exploiting Deep Aquifers in the Desert

Component 4: Utilization of Conserved and Augmented Water

Multi-critria, Multi-discplinary model has been developed by the Strategic Research Unit as an integrated Water Resources model for sustainable development of Egypt.

The model addresses many issues of which are, demand management, water allocation, conjunctive use, water conservation, risk assessment and social, environmental and economic impacts. Research in areas such as these will undeniably make a significant contribution towards the formulation of a Strategic Water Development Plan for Egypt.

4. REUSE OF AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE WATER

The amount of agricultural drainage water presently re-used in irrigation is 5.0 billion m3 annually of which 4.0 billion m3 in the Nile Delta, 1.0 in Fayoum in addition to the return flow to the Nile from the Upper Egypt drainage system. This re-used drainage water in the Delta is expected to increase gradually to reach 7.7 billion m3 by the year 2000. The total annual volume of agricultural drainage water for the year 1993 amounts to 12 billion m3 which varies in both quantity and quality with time of the year and location. It is to be noted that part of this water is from industrial and municipal waste discharge to the drainage system. Within the northern part of the delta, where most of drainage pumping stations exist, considerable contribution to the drainage system comes from upward seepage of saline groundwater. Several studies carried out by NWRC institutes confirmed this observation.

The debate on the extent the country should de pend on in the policy of agricultural drainage wastewater is strongly affected by the following facts:

a. The potential savings from improved water management, and increasing drainage water re-use are not mutually exclusive. There is a real danger that the salinity of drainage water could increase steadily over the years. Thus, a cautious approach to increasing the use of drainage water, especially in terms of water quality, is likely to be the long term interest of the country.

b. The total salt balance of the Nile Delta requires continuous leaching. This is evident when comparing a total salt load within the irrigation water to the Delta of about 18 million tons with a total salt load of 31 million tons with the drainage water pumped out of the Delta.

c. Salt water intrusion will increase from the sea to the northern delta if serious reduction of the net deep percolation in the irrigated area takes place.

The present scenario adopted by the MPWWR is to move carefully in the two national programs i.e., water management and improvement of the irrigation system, and the agricultural drainage water re-use program within the 7.7 billion m3 figure.

5. RE-USE OF TREATED MUNICIPAL WASTE WATER

The first use of treated waste water in Egypt was in 1915 in the eastern desert north east of Cairo. An area of 2500 acres are still under irrigation with waste water which receives only primary treatment. With the scarcity of water resources, it is planned to irrigate 150,000 acres with treated waste water up to the year 2000.

All urban waste water projects include facilities for treatment up to the tertiary level and allows re-use for irrigation. Many of the rural areas are still laking such facilities. It is estimated that by the year 2000, the amount of wastewater from major cities and urban areas are as given.

Table 1. Waste Water from Urban and major cities

| Area Year 1992 Year 2000

billion m3/year billion m3/year

__________________________________________________________________________

Cairo 1.36 1.70

Alexandria 0.53 0.65

Other Urban

areas 1.54 2.58

__________________________________________________________________________

. Total 3.43 4.93

Currently in Egypt, detailed criteria for waste water reuse in agriculture is under review and preparation. Several pilot programs have started and under continuous monitoring for some

6. COST RECOVERY OF IRRIGATION IMPROVED PROGRAMS

The issues of cost recovery have started receiving increased attention in Egypt. It is considered as an approach to generate additional revenue which could be used to operate and maintain irrigation systems, and even repay some, or all, of the investment costs. It could help also in conserving water uses by the farmers. The effectiveness of a costs recovery policy to achieve its expected objectives is dependent on many factors, among which are the system through which water consumption is measured, and the relation between existing taxation and water subsidy and the proposed water charging one. Farmers reactions to such changes in policies are not easy to predict in advance of the implementation of such policies. The identification of beneficiaries and the possibilities of charging the external costs like damages to the environnment should be explored. Consideration has to be given to what type of system could be instituted that would be equitable, generate revenue and simultaneously promote more efficient water use than is the case at present.

In July 94 the Egyptian people's assembly passed a law to charge the MPWWR to implement a cost recovery law on the Mesqa level. The same law sets the procedures to establish farmers water users association and the irrigation advisory service.

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS

1. Egypt being an arid country has limited water resources beside depending mainly on one single source - The River Nile.

2. It is evident now that Egypt consumes all of its share from the river to satisfy water demands for different users, and for a present population of about 58 million. Further increase in water demands is expected beyond the year 2000.

3. Egypt has launched several demand management programs which depend on maximizing the benefits of the present fresh water resources and adopt technically and environmentally sound re-use program.

4. The inter-relations between the different components of the water balance equation is complex and continuously changing in Egypt. The water use patterns, diversity of crops within the cropping pattern, recycling of agricultural drainage water, and pumping from shallow aquifers are becoming the concerns for formulating demand management programs.

5. For future agricultural uses, the reuse of treated wastewater and drainage water is considered an important element water policies. Both these resources have health and environmental implications, and hence, a functional system of monitoring and continuous evaluation is absolutely essential. Long-term potential environmental impacts of reuse of drainage water and criteria for use should be clearly identified. Institutional and legal implications of establishing a water quality data monitoring and management system has to be prepared and implemented.

REFERENCES

1. Abu-Zeid, M. 1985, "Irrigation in Egypt - Present and Future". Eighth Seminar of the Regional Commission on Land and Water Use in Cyprus.

2. AbuZeid, M. & Biswas, Asit K. 1990, "Impacts of Agriculture on Water Quality". Water International, Vol. 15.

3. Abu-Zeid, M. 1990, "Some Technical and Economical Considerations on Irrigation Water Pricing". Water Science Magazine, Issue No. 7.

4. Allam, M. N., 1987, "A Cost Allocation Approach for Irrigation Water in Upper Egypt". Water Resources Management, Vol.1.

5. Eid, El-Mohamady, 1988, "Impact of Treated Effluent Reuse on the Environment with Special Reference to Egypt". FAO Regional Seminar on Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, Cairo, Egypt.

6. Rady, M., "Water and Rural Development". IWRA Conference, Bruxel, 1985.

7. World Bank, 1990 "Arab Republic of Egypt: Land Reclamation Subsector Review". Report No. 8047EGT, World Bank, Washington D.C.

8. World Bank, 1990, "Egypt: Environmental Issues". Washington, D.C.